Finale

                              As we head into an era that is shaped less by literature, I believe that the form of what we call literature will adapt, mold, but also remain extremely important to meaning and implications of a work. Indeed, the Formal method works on other, non-textual ideas.

               

                For example, architecture can be analyzed and is pervaded by the ideas of Formalism. Just how Stravinsky used different forms to help create a neoclassical piece of music, Robert Adam and Benjamin Latrobe used architectural forms to help create the neoclassical school of architecture. Planes are used, instead of sculptural volumes. Large columns are used, recalling Greek and Roman architecture. Finally, grid street planning became much more popular, recalling the logical and orderly designs of Rome. All of the forms of classicism were recalled to make the architectural genre of neoclassicism. The formal method goes beyond the specific, however- we can view architecture more broadly, as Formalism intends to do. Look at the buildings that were designed in Neoclassicist styles- Symphony halls, museums, etc. All of these have to do with spiritual or artistic concerns that hearken back to the classical era and the indulgence of the Pax Romana. None are entirely function-based, instead it is more of an aesthetic statement. This fact reveals the truth behind Neoclassicist architecture, which it is searching for a higher, Platonic, truth.

               

Latrobe's Baltimore Basilica.

                Video games interestingly also present an opportunity to apply our Formal method. The large genres of video games inherently decide many things about what the content and mechanics of the game will be. If a game is in a team-shooter style, expectations are created based off of that form and previous games which have come before it to determine what the game will be like and how it will be received by the audience. For example, turn-based simulators all pay homage to Civilization, the pioneering game in the genre. One of the tenets of Formalism is how works in a genre depend extensively on previous works. Following this philosophy, essentially all new turn-based simulators use some sort of grid system like Civ, units, and multiplayer simulation. Even though this genre is not really literature and it extends out way beyond the realm of art, it still can be seen through the mold and the lenses of the Formal Method.

                Finally, following the abstract route I’ve taken so far, we can view something as far out as mathematical proofs through the Formal lens. Let’s return to the tenets of Formalism:

• Creation of an objective science of literature (“Poetics”)
• The use of linguistics as a foundation of that objective science.
•  Literature exists externally from outside influences. As such, literary language is inherently different from regular language, which is mostly concerned with just communication.
• The history of literature is the history of the creation of formal structures. It is not determined by material history.
•   The form of a work is inextricable from its meaning.

First, mathematics is inherently objective, and we can view it from such an objective lens. Secondly, math is in its own bubble and own community which exists essentially protected by a sphere of confusion from the outside world. If we start reading a paper, the only thing that matters is the content and the veracity of the work inside, not what we bring to the paper. It doesn’t matter whether the reader agrees or disagrees, it has no effect on the inherent truth (yes, I am taking another Platonic approach, where I’m assuming there is some definite truth.) The history of math has not been dictated by outside sources, by economic factors or by society. It has been a search for truth and a cooperative building of a framework. Finally, the form of a proof is probably the most important thing. It starts with assumptions that are already known and proven to be true, or axioms. These axioms are played with, logic and math are used to work towards new assumptions, everything builds, until finally Q.E.D. we have what the proof set out to do. This building and quasi-hierarchical structure is intrinsic to the mathematics- the building on top of one another mimics math as a whole. Each new discovery, like each step in a proof, works towards a truth. The form of a proof, in that it works towards a final goal, is intrinsic to the meaning.

Now, as it is time to say adieu, I can finally step back from the Formal mode and view everything through my own lens. This is necessary for evaluation of reality- what do you have if not your own truth? As I worked along trying to understand, I got to see the large amounts of truth in Formalism, but also ran into problems. It works in many ways that are often quite gratifying to see come to fruition, but sometimes fails to get to the heart of a work, something a bit more ascetic. What is the beauty in Stravinsky? It’s there, but what is it? That question, I believe, fails the Formal Method. We can break it down to see what the motives of composition, the methods, and the purpose are, but what exactly makes it a timeless work that can be listened to again and again? No scientific method can give us the answer. Is it something that even can be answered, or is that too objective? Once again, at the capitulation, I find myself with more questions than answers. That is the mark of a successful inquiry.

Symphony of Psalms

As we stroll along to the final chapter in our exploration, I wanted to take on a subject that is problematic but also quite intriguing. So, there it lies in front of me, Igor Stravinsky’s Symphony of Psalms.

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) was a Russian composer, one of the most influential and important of the 20th century. His stylistic diversity transformed the way composers think about music, always pushing for the boundary of structure. Symphony of Psalms represents a new era in music, one that rejects romanticism and impressionism as backwards vestiges of the past. He pioneered the Neoclassicist genre, which values the tradition of “pure” music of Bach and others. The chosen work was at the center of the movement. Symphony of Psalms was written in 1930, commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra to commemorate their 50^th anniversary. Interestingly and amusingly, Stravinsky’s publisher suggested that he write a “popular” piece for orchestra without chorus. Instead, the symphony is a three-movement work for chorus and orchestra that is performed without break. The form of “symphony” is not used strictly here, as the four-movement traditional classical work, instead it just ties the work together. The text sung by the chorus is all from the book of psalms, but the text is not the focus of the work; instead, Stravinsky said that the work was the music set to Psalms, not Psalms set to music. Now that you have a solid foundation of what the work is all about, let’s see how its form and music contained therein complement the meaning as a whole.

The ecclesiastical nature of the work is portrayed through the techniques of composition. There are large portions of the text in fugal counterpoint, for example an expansive double fugue at the end of the first movement. The style of the fugue and counterpoint were widely used in the church during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the music Stravinsky was trying to emulate. Also, the large chorus is used to simulate a church setting, where a chorus can create a ritualistic atmosphere.

I would be remiss if I did not at least mention the octatonic scale, the harmonic framework for the symphony. The octatonic is a critical component of Stravinsky’s musical vocabulary and he makes extensive use of it throughout the chosen work and indeed throughout most, if not all, of his compositions. The octatonic scale uses alternating whole and half steps and is 8 notes unlike the traditional western 7 note scale (omitting the top note, an octave above the bottom note.) This form is used later in movement 3 for purposes that will be discussed later.

The octatonic is used in the first exposition of the chorus, where half steps are used that evoke a ritual feel and enhance the plaintive mood of the text. The text sung by the chorus in Mov. 1 is Psalm 39:12-13. Again, the text is not the point of the work, it is a part of the form, which is a recollection but transformation of the classical style.

In movement 3, the form of orchestration and rhythm is used to evoke religious imagery. Psalm 150 is sung contemporaneously: (in Vulgate Latin, an English translation is below)

Alleluia.

Praise God in His sanctuary:

Praise Him in the firmament of His power.

Praise Him for His mighty acts:

Praise Him according to His excellent greatness.

Praise Him with the sound of the trumpet:

Praise Him with the timbrel and dance.

Praise Him with stringed instruments and organs.

Praise Him upon the high sounding cymbals,

Praise Him upon the loud cymbals.

Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord.

Alleluia.

First of all, the use of Latin, a long dead language, to score a piece of music may appear perplexing. Nobody in the audience will understand a single word of what is being said for the entire performance. Once again, I stress that the point is the music, and the Psalms are put alongside. Secondly, the use of Latin is historically accurate and goes along with our neoclassicist interpretation: Latin would have been used in Catholic churches, at least, in the Baroque and Renaissance eras.

                The second movement, a continuation of the double fugue, uses that octatonic scale in an unknown environment of old-school fugues and structure. Finally, the third movement, a triumphant reflection, uses triplet motifs in trumpet and piano to reflect Elijah’s chariot climbing the heavens, which is quite literal for Stravinsky. The final hymn of praise is issued from the skies (the chorus, which become angelic) as the symphony opens up and slows down to a sublime end.

                Stravinsky’s Symphony of Psalms is one of the most important works, in my opinion, to come out of the 20^th century. It, in a wholly implied and graceful way, rejects 100 years of impressionism, creates a new school of neoclassicism, and plays with the ideas of liturgy and ecclesiastical music. The Formal Method has proved to be a handy companion to us while approaching this dense and mind-hurting work. Even though banned by the Russian government, it can still be used to understand and get a somewhat objective meaning out of quite Russian works.

“I haven't understood a bar of music in my life, but I have felt it.”
Igor Stravinsky 

"Igor Stravinsky." BrainyQuote.com. Xplore Inc, 2016. 6 June 2016.

Jin Myung Kang, M.M. "An Analysis of Stravinsky's Symphony of Psalms Focusing on Tonality and Haromony." (2007): 1-7.

 Van Den Toorn, Pieter C., and Tymoczko Demitri. "Stravinsky and the Octatonic: The Sounds of  Stravinsky." Music Theory Spectrum 25.1 (2003): 167-202. Web.

Undun

                Rap provides some of the context addressed in the final paragraph of Borges and I- a short, improvisational exposition. The style of rap will be addressed here as I analyze the album Undun by The Roots. This album is a profound statement of urban life and an eternal struggle. I’m definitely not the most fit to empathize with the lyrics, but the form of the album from song to song and indeed within each song is masterfully crafted and easily lends itself to analysis via the Formal Method.

                Rap, as I said above, is a new style that is highly improvisational (well, it seems improvisational. The rap in this album is dense and painstakingly written.) The short form of a song and trading of rap verses allows a listener to hear different sides of arguments, or sometimes just two people bragging about themselves, in the case of old-school rap battles. Because rap is straight-to-the-point and terse, it is an effective medium and form to get across a strong message, the goal of Undun. Lots of lyrics and lines are put into one song, lots of allusions and cross-references as well, which are mainly afforded by the form of the rap song.

                The “Good”rap versus the “bad” rap plays an important role in Undun. Good rap is music that places an emphasis on internal strife, makes a well-thought message, and is generally more law-abiding and less vulgar. “Bad” rap is the opposite- vulgar, obscene, profane, and places an emphasis on deeds rather than thought. The Roots are well aware of both sides and adopt the form for different songs when they wish to make different effects or convey different messages.

                Third, the attacca (directly moving from song to song) form of Undun is critical to understanding the message. The title implies something being unraveled, and indeed the album begins with death (a flat heart monitor.) Over the course of the album, the anger is explained as we see how the different lives were affected by their upbringings and paradigms. The flow of consciousness is implied from the transitions from song to song. The purpose of this is to establish the album as moving backwards in time, and pretty much all of the songs contained therein are a reflection on times past, on good and poor choices made that affected lives down the road. The Roots are encouraging reflection and contemplation, as well as re-listening.

                All of the different Formal motifs in the album stack up to create an image of a complex work with implications not easily grasped. The listener is shown a lot of content and experiences many points of view; this is created by different voices contributing to different rap “stanzas”. Overall, Undun is a testament to the power of choices. The paradigm of the black man in urban America is explored—there are only two ways to escape: dig a tunnel out, or dig a grave. What better way to evaluate choices than in hindsight? This is why the album takes an antichronological form. In this case, the form enhances and helps create meaning once again, in the layout and content of each song in a whole album.

Borges and I

After our adventure into the realm of strange and post-modern, we can revert into a more comfortable genre: short stories. For this topic, we’ll tackle something a bit different, the collection of short stories and essays by Jorge Luis Borges, called Labyrinths This collection is usually analyzed from a post-modern perspective, as Borges was one of the creators of the genres and leaders in its criticism. However, the work does have aspects that can have meaning made from them when the formal method is applied.

                It is important to note that the collection is all made up of short stories. Borges did not write long fiction in his entire body of work, and there is a purpose to that choice. The form of the short story affords and implies meaning and helps along the creative and self-reflexive theme that dominates the work of Borges.          

                First, the short story recalls storytelling, an act innate to human nature. It is as if Borges were coming up with this story or telling it all to us himself- these can be read in one sitting. Short story carries on the oral tradition, which is valued by Borges. Secondly, the brevity of the oral form lends itself to lightness and playfulness. A light and playful style is paramount to the effect of the stories- if they are taken too seriously, the true meaning cannot be derived. The true meaning, in many cases, is a purpose to flaunt the author-reader dialogue and play with the notion of storytelling itself. The style opposes the rigidity implied by written language, and introduces a sort of spontaneity. Lastly, the idea of a narrative economy is supported by the short form of the stories. A narrative economy is the idea that nothing in the text should be included that is unnecessary to the development of the narrative. This approach places narrative first, and the form stresses it.

                Borges choosing to write exclusively in the short story and essay is critical to the understanding of his work, but also has implications for literature as a whole. The post-modern movement goes along with the short story, as a more intellectual, theoretical, and abstract way of thinking. It strives to break the chains of the tradition of the Ayn Rand-esque tome. It doesn’t take itself so seriously, but it is absolutely serious in intention. Perhaps, for the future, we may be seeing a divergence from the novel altogether. Interestingly, this would be a reversion back to the oral tradition, where a story is only as long as it can be remembered. We will see how the work of Borges and others has contributed to the development of text as a whole.

Kefala, Eleni. "Borges and Narrative Economy: Conservative Formalism or Subversion of Signification?" Variaciones Borges 18 (2004): n. pag. Borges.pitt.edu. Web. 5 June 2016.

Memes (Dat Boi)

            Memes are the most popular and up-coming trend that is facilitated by a rapidly communicating and interconnected society. They rise and fall quickly, and have developed their own weird, unique meta-culture. They often revolve around satire, self-reference, and reference to the outside world. However, they do have their own forms and structures that rely on past memes- the meaning of each meme comes from the medium in which it is based.

            This analysis is clearly different than the analysis of Kurosawa. Kurosawa intends to send a vaguer message that relies on inference and study of the formal structure to obtain. Memes are quite the opposite, flaunting their meaning and making it extremely obvious. In fact, the characteristic of memes to do so is a defining characteristic of their meaning.

Kurosawa- Dreams

            As we go along in our formal journey, it is time to apply the Formal Theory to real works. Dreams, directed and written by Akira Kurosawa, is the first work up that I will try to squeeze the meaning out of.

            First some background on Kurosawa. After receiving formal training as a painter, Kurosawa became a director of movies in the 1940’s in wartime Japan. Over a long and prolific career, Kurosawa became a film icon and an influence to directors around the world. Before the end of his life, he made a film called Dreams- a divergence from his earlier films. The text contains different dreams in the form of short films from the director’s life. Kurosawa wrote the screenplay entirely independently, a sign of the deeply personal work. Released in 1990, the film met lukewarm reception at Cannes. However, the film’s beauty resides in the fact that it adheres to its form so strictly, and it should be read and interpreted as poetic language.

            I did some digging into the Rotten Tomatoes page for Dreams to see what people think about the film, as opposed to film critics. It reveals the interpretive latitude that the film affords; some reveal that it is their favorite movie, favorite Kurosawa movie, and sing the praises of its poetic vague nature. Others balk at its preachiness, sluggishness (#doomed?) and self-indulgence.

            Anyway, let’s get to the application of the Formal Method to Dreams. Beginning at the overall structure of the text, we can see that it is divided into 8 essentially equally timed dream sequences that paint vivid pictures of each dream. Each is starred by a central male figure, “I”. The Dreamer, I, starts as a boy then becomes a man, then an older man. In each dream, the same sequence of events essentially occurs, with different variations on that theme. In this way, the form recalls how dreams work- fragmented sequences that seem to slip in and out of existence. There is very little context- the viewer is thrown into the story.  

            In each dream, the general form is repeated, which reflects the repetition of dreams and patterns of sleeping. A male protagonist witnesses some supernatural event which makes the Dreamer hyper-aware of nature. For example, in the first sequence “Sunshine through Rain” the young boy witnesses a wedding processional (in the Kabuki style) of foxes. This event is supernatural- the boy is not supposed to be seeing the sacred ritual. After this, he is given a decree to either seek the foxes’ forgiveness or kill himself, putting him in the context of the hierarchy of nature. The sequence called “The Blizzard” resembles the form of “Sunshine”. Mountain climbers, stuck in a blizzard, are about to give up living before the protagonist is recalled to life by a supernatural being. They then realize, somewhat comically, that they have only traveled a couple feet from their camp and are saved from certain doom. The form of a male protagonist witnessing a supernatural event that gives him some realization about nature can be mapped on to the work itself as a whole- Kurosawa is the male, receiving the supernatural events (dreams), and those dreams allow him to make realizations about the world.

The dream sequences are linked to the ones immediately preceding and after it. This form builds continuity but allows the themes of the dreams to shift. For example, “Crows” and “The Tunnel” may seem quite different, but both are linked by the presence of animals which represent a shift to a supernatural state. In “The Tunnel”, the dog is a quasi-Cerberus,  who growls and barks at the Dreamer before he crosses into the other side. In “Crows”, the Dreamer sees the crows inside a Van Gogh which transport him into the world of the paintings themselves. Interestingly, both crows and dogs are traditional psychopomps, which transport deceased souls to the afterlife. Probably just a coincidence though.

For Kurosawa’s Dreams, the form is everything. The form reinforces the meaning intrinsic to the work itself. The implications of the text can be derived from the form and just the content inside: that dreams give us a glimpse of the supernatural and therefore some insight into nature. Kurosawa encourages us to embrace the meanings of our dreams and explore the potential therein. He also makes some political statements in some of the darker works like “Mount Fuji in Red”, which warn against the transgressions of man against nature. The ideal is seen in the final dream “Village of the Waterwheels.” Here, an idyllic, pastoral picture is painted that has humans both in perfect harmony with the natural world but also with the cycle of life and death. The river down the center separates life from death (supernatural) and represents the flow of time and passage of events. There is a trove of interpretation in Dreams. See what you can dream up yourself.

Brooke, Michael. Akira Kurosawa. IMDb. IMDb.com, n.d. Web. 31 May 2016.

Formalism- an introduction

Formalism is one of those ideas which starts to make your head hurt after too long.

Formalism, in its nascent form, emerged from the stormy place that was early-20^th century Russia. Drawing from some symbolist influences, the school sought a more scientific and objective way to view a text. The early thinkers of the school did not call themselves “Formalists”- the theory is hard to sum up in just one word. Some especially unwieldy names include the “Morphological school” and my favorite, the “system-functional” approach. The beginnings of the school are fractured- and the harsh political climate did the thinkers no favors. A notable early group was called OPOYAZ, or the “Society for the Study of Poetic Language.” Interestingly, the theory has grown much beyond the language we think of as poetic, and is applied (as you will see, by me) to other mediums and genres.

So to the elephant in the room. As the name implies, Formalism stresses the form of a work, and especially only the things that are contained within it. The theory seeks to quiet outside influences of culture and society and focus on just the text itself. It is somewhat of a reaction to romanticism and the almost worship of the author or artist. Instead, what Formalism examines is how that text relies on previous works before it, and the form of the work.

After its formation, the Soviet regime was not too friendly towards the school. Marxist theory dictates how the economic class struggle is the basis of society and affects everything. So when Roman Jakobson strolls along and suggests that nothing should influence the meaning of the text but the text itself, the Muskovians do not take it too lightly.

It is at this point that I should address what “Russian” formalism is and how it differs from traditional formalism. It is a bit of a misnomer, as formalism started in Russia and is mainly associated with that country. Russian formalism is scientific and adopts several unique and distinctive ideas. Those ideas are as follows:

• Creation of an objective science of literature (“Poetics”)
• The use of linguistics as a foundation of that objective science.
•  Literature exists externally from outside influences. As such, literary language is inherently different from regular language, which is mostly concerned with just communication.
• The history of literature is the history of the creation of formal structures. It is not determined by material history.
•   The form of a work is inextricable from its meaning.

 This blog will be concerned with the ideas of Russian Formalism mainly, and the application of that type of literary criticism to selected texts.

Now that we have somewhat of a grasp on the theory of Formalism, more specifically Russian Formalism, we can revisit its history. When the Bolsheviks came into power in 1917, the Formal system came to be at odds with the government. Trotsky wrote a rebuttal to the system after the revolution, rejecting its rejection of outside influences. It should be noted that Formal theory is diametrically opposed to Marxism, which stresses how all text is a part of the class struggle. Finally, in 1929, Formalism was condemned in the Soviet Union but pervaded in the free world.

Of great interest to historians is the treatment of the Formal system in the USSR. Under the Zhdanov Doctrine, all Soviet artists and intellectual elites had to conform to the communist party’s wishes and regulations. Furthermore, a decree on music in 1948 kicked off the “anti-formalism campaign.” Eventually, these critiques subsided, but not before making a permanent dent in the culture and thinking of the Soviet Union.

The Formal Method was arguably the dominant form (heh) of criticism in the US during the 40’s through the 1970’s. New Criticism, which arose around the same time, is not altogether unrelated to formalism, however they arose independently.

Most of the founding fathers, as it were, of Formalism were Russian. OPOYAZ, the group that I mentioned before, which founded “Poetics”, was made up of some of the most influential thinkers in the school—Boris Eichenbaum, Tynyanov, but most notably Viktor Shlovsky, seen by Eichenbaum and others to be the father of Formalism. Another school, the Moscow Linguistic Circle, was made up of thinkers like Roman Jakobson and Boris Tomashevsky. (This group contributed to linguistics in addition to semiotics.) (You may have heard of a few of those things.) (Is anyone actually reading this?)

Looking forward, this blog will evaluate 5 different works and apply the Formal Method to each, with an in-depth discussion and a view that will step back and do a sort of meta-analysis. I hope you will join me this most noble quest.

“Finally, from so little sleeping and so much reading, his brain dried up and he went completely out of his mind.” Cervantes

Viktor Shklovsky

Sources Cited:

Eikhenbaum, Boris Mikhailovich. The Theory of the “Formal Method”. (1926): n. pag. Web. 31 May 2016. <http://letras.cabaladada.org/letras/theory_fomal_method.pdf>.

"Formalism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 30 May. 2016
<http://www.britannica.com/topic/Formalism-literary-criticism.

Steiner, Peter. Russian Formalism: A Metapoetics. Lausanne: Sdvig, 2014. Print.

Taruskin, Richard, and Richard Taruskin. Music in the Late Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.